Rights

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THE SOURCE OF RIGHTS

Ayatullah Muhammad Taqi Misbah Yazdi

[ Fifth Islamic Thought Conference, Tehran, Jan. 28-31, 1987.]

Contents:

PREFACE
PRESENTATION OF THE ISSUE
A BASIC DIFFERENCE
REASON FOR DEVIATION
INVESTIGATION OF DOUBTS
WHAT IS THE EXPEDIENCY?
WELFARE OF INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETY
RELATIONSHIP OF TRUTH WITH EXPEDIENCY



In the Name of Allah The Beneficent, the Merciful

Almighty the Prudent says in His holy Book: ...Nay he has brought them the truth. And should the truth follow their low desires, surely the heavens and the earth and all those who are therein would have perished... (230:70,71)... And Allah the Exulted is true.

PREFACE

The subject of our discussion is the origin of rights. Before entering into discussion of the subject matter it is essential to explain the meaning of right and its usage.

Right, justice and its synonyms are the most sacrosanct words which enjoy highest sanctity and special elegance of meaning in all the human societies. One can hardly come across a person who would like to introduce himself as the supporter of falsehood and oppression and oppression and opposed to justice and the right. The most tyrant persons and governments proclaim to be true and just in order to deceive the people. They want to cover the ugliness of their aggressive tyrant deeds under the beautiful mantle of justice and truth. The affinity of these two meanings becomes clearer when justice is defined as dispensation of right to the rightful.

The search for truth and justice is considered as the mother of all social values. The precept of virtue of right and justice is an evident rational dictum. Inclination and ambition for these are considered as a part of man s lofty temperament. So is the precept of vices of oppression and fallacy an evident rational dictum. Dislike for these is also a part of human nature.

Islamic culture also attaches significant importance to these terms. These have repeatedly been referred to in the Holy Quran and the sayings of the holy Prophet and the members of his household which indicate the importance of this matter in the system of Islamic values.

Let us however, impress upon the fact that the word right has various usages but all of these do not relate to our subject matter. For instance, the word right means permanent being, or the statement according to facts or a promise about something which would certainly happen, etc.

Therefore, truth in relation to Almighty Allah also does not relate to our subject matter. If the search for justice and right is part of human nature it cannot be related to acquaintance and worship of Allah and the existence of one cannot be derived from the other. Some have tried to do so to arrive to such conclusions but they have only confused between its ethical meanings and philosophical conception.

The other point is that the limitations for usage of right in legal discussions is much narrower than its expanded use in ethical and religious discourses, discussions are held on the rights of Allah over man and even the rights of man over Allah. But as far as the legal concept is concerned it exclusively relates to the relationship between man and man. On the other hand, the word rights is used in at least two different meanings as far as its usage by the lawyers is concerned. The one relates to reservations and privileges granted to individuals or groups of persons which should be honored by others and should not be violated or encroached upon by any one. The other meaning is the code of laws whose observance is obligatory. These may provide privileges for certain persons or prescribe obligations for others. These can also be laws describing conditions regarding the correctness of agreements and contracts. The word rights the correctness of agreements and contracts. The word rights in the second sense is very much similar to the term social laws.

However, these two meanings are not entirely alienated to each other, because all legal laws are connected in one way or the other with the right of individuals or the society. If it grants a right to somebody it necessitates and obligation for the opposite side. In case it provides obligations for all it would mean provision of reciprocal duties for all. As a result of this every one will have a reciprocal right on the other. As a matter of tact, such general laws are dissolved into minor laws each of which guarantee a special right or obligation.

To put this in one sentence, it can be said that rights and duties are interrelated and the enactment of one necessitates the provision of the other.

Similarly, the enactment of laws such as those providing details and conditions for entering into agreements and contracts and similar other laws provide both rights and duties accruing from such agreements and contracts.

PRESENTATION OF THE ISSUE

As mentioned earlier the search for ones rights is a lofty sacrosanct human value so much so that it is considered to be the mother of all other social values. But the word right by itself does not represent anything or a deed in particular. It cannot precisely specify its meanings. For instance, the meaning of justice can be specified only when a right is stipulated in advance so that its restoration to its owner is considered as the applicability of justice.

In other words the concepts of rights of rights and justice are not substantial concepts which could be obtained by the realization of its instances and may not need rational considerations and comparisons. A particular move or action cannot always be considered as illustrative of right and justice nor can another type of move or deed can always be considered as unjust and oppressive. In certain given circumstances, even beating, injuring and killing may be considered as a case of right and justice. For example, if it was a case of reprisal or legal punishment. Hence the legality or illegality of such actions depends on the fact whether it was done as a reprisal or punishment or committed as and original act without the other party which is beaten, wounded or killed, having committed a crime. So long as such considerations and comparisons are not made, the outward act cannot be defined as right and justified or illegal and cruel.

Hence, the most fundamental issues of the philosophy of rights is as to what is the origin of rights? What is the basis determining the rights and obligations of persons in varied conditions?

In other words what is the source of segregating the titles of rightful and the wrong. Just and unjust? What considerations and distinctions should be carried out to distinguish between these titles?tles?

Some may say that instances of right and justice can be recognized through wisdom and natural instinct. Every wise person knows that snatching a piece of bread from a hungry orphan child is cruelty and its restitution a justice. On the whole depriving an owner of his property. Whatever it may be, or aggression on any ones life and honor is cruel and unjust, but consumption from ones own property and protection of ones own life and dignity is rightful and just.

But such replies are the outcome of simplicity and lack of in-depth-thinking of scientific and philosophical issues. Anyone who has that least acquaintance with legal matters can quote many instances wherein identification of right and wrong would not be as simple as that. In many a cases, even the most talented judges of the world get confused while they are required to deliver their judgment. There are abundant instances wherein distinguished legislators of the mankind cannot express a decisive opinion or expressly identify between the right and the wrong.

Therefore, if there are clear, definite and specific instances of right and just for the common man, undoubtedly there are many ambiguous and doubtful cases wherein it is not every specific rules and complex formulae. It is about these rules and formulae that we have to endeavor and find them out.

A BASIC DIFFERENCE

Having dealt with superficial and simplistic views, we come across a deep-rooted difference between the lawyers. The question is whether right and justice have a real essence of their own which needs to be discovered and identified, or such matters are subject to conditions and agreements, for instance, situations which do not have any real essence and rational basis. On the contrary they are dependent on agreement. In cases where there are supportive and overall agreements it is considered that human wisdom and conscience would realize them. In case where such overall agreements do not exist, there is a need for enacted laws so that peoples right and duties are determined through them.

Such a tendency existed since long amongst the Sophists who believed that right and justice, as well as all other moral and legal matters were subject to public opinion. Their most well known aim is that man is the standard of everything. From the writings related to Plato it appears that the major portion of Socrates discourses with Sophists related to moral and legal subjects.

But this tendency declined with the flourishing of the philosophies of Plato and Aristotle. They could not get any renowned supporter for many a centuries. It was only after the renaissance and particularly during the days of Hume, the famous septic British philosopher that this way of thinking came to surface with fresh prestige and dignity. Gradually the number of people contributing to this philosophy increased. Presently the historical and positivist schools of law, which have attained significant reputation in international legal circles, are more or less, fed through this source.

In reply to those who contribute to this tendency, it may be said that if rights did not have rational and realistic base, the relationship of contradictory and antithetical laws with the welfare and well being of the people should have been uniform, whether people liked these laws or adopted laws other than these. Innumerable experiences in addition to ones reason and wisdom indicate that many of the enacted laws have been to the disadvantage of society. Legislators have realized their mistakes after sometime and resorted to set them right. This is the best witness to the fact that irrespective of people’s inclination and despite lawmakers’ views, real interests and essence do exist which may occasionally be in line with enacted laws and at times opposed to it.

But this summary reply is not sufficient to remove all doubts which arise in this regard. It is necessary that at least the most important of such doubts should be examined and dealt with.

REASON FOR DEVIATION

Probably for us, the Muslims, who have been brought up in the environment of Islamic culture, it may be rather. Astonishing that a group of eminent law experts deny the reality of essence for right and justice and opine that they are subject to people’s views and taste. This tendency is in vague in contemporary legal circles of the world and has registered considerable numbers of supporters.

It may however be noted that, like other deviated ideas in different branches of philosophy and learning, this view did not come to surface extemporaneously nor did it spread or expand merely by chance. There are two reasons for this. Firstly, some invisible hands may have propounded and propagated certain psychological, sociological as well as legal and economic theories with a view to achieve their political and colonial motives. Secondly, Certain doubts might have been raised for which convincing replies could not be fond due to weak philosophical foundations. As these doubts and suspicions piled up, they caused a tendency for theories, doctrines and schools which were of a deviated nature. Let it not be forgotten that most f the deviated thoughts came in vogue only when philosophy and meta-physics became weak and the place of deep thinking rationalism was taken by superficial sentimentalism. However, what popularized this deviated tendency in lego-moral philosophy is the presence of a number of doubts and suspicions mooted by emporiums and positivism etc. and found appropriate social grounds for their acceptance.

A detailed examination of such doubts and suspicions and a description of statements and all pervasive disputes in regard to them cannot be discussed in this short paper. Therefore, I would only deal briefly with the most important doubts and provide replies to them. Thereafter we shall explain the acceptable views in regard to the origin of rights.

INVESTIGATION OF DOUBTS

(1) One of the doubts is as follow: There have been and still exist different system of laws. Each of these has been more or less effective in the realization of the objective which is the maintenance of law and order in the society and relative security of peoples demand. Every society prefers its own system of laws. If people’s views and understanding undergo a change, the laws ruling the society are also altered. This has been witnessed in different countries of the world. These changes have also taken place even in legal systems which are divine and based on religion. This change takes place by nullification. If laws had a stable rational base such changes and alterations could not be justified.

In reply it must be said that:

Firstly: The legal system should not be considered as a totally independent system. Nor should its objective be considered as the maintenance of order and relative security of peoples demand. On the contrary, the legal system should be recognized as part of a comprehensive and value-oriented system; its object being the creation of a means for the realization of ultimate aim through a complete value oriented system.

In other words, social relations are only one of the many aspects of human life. The provision and regularization of these relations are a means to provide utmost possible perfection and eternal bliss to the largest possible number of people belonging to the society. Therefore, privilege laws should be enacted in such a manner that they are commensurate with the general objective of the value oriented moral system or at least it is not in contradiction with it. This is a fact which has been neglected in man-made legal systems resulting in separation of laws from religion and ethics.

Secondly: The claim that various legal systems are similar as far as the realization of approximate legal objectives is concerned is unrealistic and exaggerated. As mentioned earlier many a times the law makers themselves have realized their mistakes and worked to set them right. It is because the alteration of laws is not only due to change in views and peoples understanding.

Thirdly: Rational and realistic base for laws does not mean that all legal norms have stable and ever-lasting infrastructure. May be the change in certain realities and external conditions may result in alteration in some judicial laws. The nullification of divine laws in certain cases is one such instance. However, the question of the existence of a rational base for laws should not be mixed up with its permanency.

(2)The other doubt is that a legal system comes to realization when the people of a society or at least some active and effective groups and sections of the society recognize the system. Till such recognition is achieved, it remains an idea in peoples mind or a few lines jotted on a paper. Therefore, the basis of laws is public opinion and their acceptance by people; even if these are imposed on them by an individual or group of persons in the beginning. However, the wishes of people and the views of individual and groups cannot be neglected and the laws are based on reality of essence independent of people’s views and understanding.

In reply it may be said that there is no doubt that the working of a legal system is based on its acceptance in the society. If the people as a whole, or their majority or their active and effective groups are opposed to a legal system and resist it strongly, the system can never be put into effect. However, the question is whether a legal system can be called just or oppressive without taking into consideration its acceptance or non-acceptance by the people? Can it be said that a people have accepted a just system and another people have submitted to an oppressive one? Can it be said that system recognized by the people shall be just and that justice and tyranny are nothing but their acceptance or rejection by the people? Those who view right and justice as independent of people’s opinion and acceptance believe that a given legal system can be just even if people do not accept it. And naturally another given system, contrary to the first, shall be oppressive irrespective of its acceptance or otherwise by the people. The above statement cannot contradict and nullify such a view.

(3) The other doubt is that legal laws are dictatorial and their essence is command and prohibition even if these are expressed in informative terms. This is evident from description of rights bearing the essence of privileges or from description of enacted laws such as terms and conditions. It is obvious that dictated version could neither be verified nor denied. In such cases one cannot give consideration to facts. We have only to consider the wish of dictator based on negligence and permissiveness. In any case such commands have no other facts behind them except the wishes of the dictator.

In reply is to be said that we don not deny the dictatorial nature of legal terminology nor do we deny the dictatorial nature of informative compositions and also accept Th. possibility of presentation of dictatorial compositions in the form of informative text. However, the question is that if such wordy and literary debates are set aside, one can say without any doubt that a particular law is in conformity with peoples interest and if enforced their real interests will be served. Similarly, conversely it can also be said that a particular law is against people’s interest. Our purpose in saying that laws are in conformity with or against people’s rights in nothing but what has been said above. If possibilities of such a comparison were denied it would only mean to dispute and refute the self-evident.

It becomes clear from the above that the existence of description by using dictatorial terminology and words of command and injunction relate only to a particular style of description which is selected to add to the stress laid on such commands. It also has the aspect of psychology and does not indicate any sign of dictatorship in its nature.

(4) The other doubt is contractual substances and legal subjects consist of matters like ownership and companionship etc., which have no reality into consideration for legal methods which include such substances. These are termed as correct if they are in conformity with provision and called incorrect, if not.

In reply it may be said that the above-mentioned matters are, although subject to credibility and contract and that there is no specific factuality in regard to them but it cannot be argued that these have been supposed and stated in an exaggerated manner. On the contrary, these are like mathematical and algebraically formulae which relate to the effects, fractions and sub-fractions of different factors and are taken into consideration as signs and symbols for particular behaviors and their effects; and that those behaviors and effects so formed on them bear a mark of identicalness and factuality. For instance, the term companionship is a symbol to indicate the state of the total behavior of two spouses in their family life which is identified by certain limitations and restrictions.

Therefore, though legal terms are not by themselves indicative of any ocular realities yet they are not entirely alien to such factuality's. We may, therefore, describe the relationship of these matters with facts sating that the state of the actual relationship of mankind are the base and the infrastructure of such matters. In other words it can be said that legal and value matters are like two-faced coins, one side of which is indicative of their value and the other indicative of their factuality.

However, the motive leading to the acceptance of such matters or to consider them as borrowed from substantial and philosophical context is to facilitate their understanding like the motive in all other rational credibility's. For once it can also be like a motive which leads to the usage of alphabets and brief signs in mathematical formulae. Therefore, we should not be tempted by the outward credence of legal methods; nor should we neglect the facts hidden behind them. While facts of physics and chemistry are related in the language of mathematics and through algebraically signs, these cannot be considered as devoid of correctness only because of these signs being contractual.

It may be recalled that in case of companionship and other credibility's accruing from contracts and agreements, acceptance of both the sides and three decision to observe particular types of behavior as well as the expression of this acceptance and decision form parts of a specific social expedience formula. Though all these are factual and non-contractual meters, the use of a particular word or the writing of a specified sentence or the performance of a particular action during the implementation of the contract may be forged and contractual matter, but the credence of this condition, in its own turn, is subject to real expedience and substance.

It is therefore, concluded that the creditability of legal substances cannot be considered as a reason for the absence of virtues and vices in the substance. Nor can it be said that there is no connection between the legal laws and the virtue and vices of the substance.

(5) The other doubt is that legal methods, while conferring a right of someone emphatically or implicitly, confirm a duty for the opposite side. Therefore, all legal laws should be considered as containing the essence of must or obligation and the synonyms thereof. On the hand we know that such matters, for instance value essence, is different from real essence because real essence speaks of external affairs, and have descriptive aspect as against the matters of value essence which have instructive and obligatory aspect.

In view of these two prefaces, it becomes clear that legal laws cannot be considered as bearing realities and they cannot be derived from descriptive affairs. For instance, if the aim that man is born free and has the potential to select and adopt is taken into consideration, we cannot conclude that man must live free and the right of freedom for every man is intact. This is because one of the conditions for correct reasoning and deduction is that the result should not contain an essence in excess of the essences which form the axioms. Whereas descriptive passages o not contain terms like must but the instructive context for instance legal norms do consist such an essence.

It is, therefore, concluded that legal passages do not contain ocular realities, neither these are dried from descriptive happenings nor do they contain realities. Hence, legal laws cannot be considered as authenticated by ocular realities.

In order to clarify the reply to this doubt, two points should be kept in mind:

Firstly, it is not the external things which are meant to be the essence of realities on which depend legal laws. On the other hand it means the qualities which wisdom differentiates in things and persons and the relationship between them. This includes the relationship of passion and impression between the voluntary deeds of a man and the results accruing from them-whether material, worldly and social or spiritual, moral and otherworldly. Such a relationship is reality of essence; though it may not be related to external things. In other words the logical and metaphysical facts described with special philosophical essence are realities of essence. Therefore, the proposition that it is necessary to observe rules and limitations to maintain order in the society has of essence because the observance of limitations and rules is the cause for the maintenance of order and the existence of cause is necessary for the fulfillment of the effect-this necessity is iterated as analogical necessity in philosophical terms and considered as a reality of essence. It is because social order cannot be achieved in the ocular external world without the preservation and observance of laws. This proposition enjoys as much of reality of essence as mathematical and natural propositions. For instance the necessity of water for the growth of trees or the need to raise to the power of two the side of the square to find out its area.

The other point is that logical propositions contain unpronounced parts in addition to pronounced portions. This indicates the relative condition and is known as the essence of proposition in logical terminology. The unpronounced essence may be called as its aspect. It can even be treated as and essential element of the proposition. For instance it may be said that existence of living beings is feasible in celestial bodies. In fact the essence of feasible described the condition of relativity between the living beings and existence in celestial spheres and now it has taken an independent essence and become the predicate of the proposition.

Taking into consideration these two points, it becomes clear that legal propositions are in fact descriptive of the relationship of the causality between the various types of mans voluntary actions and the realization of the objectives of rights. Their soundness depends on the discovery of the complete formula of causation and the exact identification of its components, conditions and restrictions. But the discovery of such a complete formula is very difficult in consideration of multiplicity of factors and their variations and different types of restrictions, interests, mischiefs and shortcomings in all instances. This also results in creating many different points of views. If, however, one takes into consideration the necessity to contain the legal system within the whole value-oriented system also paying attention to moral objective, the difficulties inherent therein shall become obvious. Finally, one comes to the conclusion that human wisdom is so limited and his experiences so imperfect that these cannot present a perfect legal system which can work to achieve eternal bliss and complete perfection. That is why the need for revelation and Divine law becomes obvious.

And now the problem regarding the deduction of the word must from the word to be will be solved in view of the second point. The propositions known as descriptive propositions consisting of the relation of causation shall guarantee analogical necessity which form the essence of the proposition and this is the essence of the guaranteed necessity in introducing analogy and appears in the form of must and obligation Neglect of these logical subtleties has made some others feel that the deduction of value oriented and legal laws from descriptive propositions is not possible. However, it must be considered that the deduction of the need of effect depends on the realization of all the components of the total cause contrary to the existence of each of the cause factors which are essential for the realization of the effect.

If in the preliminaries of analogy only one part of the total cause is included then the need for effect cannot be deduced from them. The sophistication obtained in the deduction of moral and legal propositions from scientific ones is due to the placement of a part of the cause instead of the total cause. The examination of these matters is not within the domain of this short paper.

WHAT IS THE EXPEDIENCY?

From what has been mentioned above in short, we understand that legal laws can be evaluated on the basis of their being harmonious and in the same direction with actual virtues and vices. In other words it may be said that legal laws should be based on truth and justice and not subjected to capricious desires and tastes of peoples or groups of people. And should the truth follow their low desires, surely the heavens and the earth and all those who are therein would have perished... (23:71)

This has herby become clear that legal and value oriented matters are like symbols so bring out the combination of effect and impression which take place in the sphere of voluntary actions and social relations of human beings and indicates the direction of movement towards the objective of laws and the final target of value system. It also becomes known that the real duty of the lawmaker is to give thought to the different complex relationship between actions in relation to the legal objectives as well as to the objectives of morality and religion. He should declare necessary any work of any nature required to be undertaken in order to achieve these objectives and which are within the framework of legal and value oriented subjects. He is also required to prohibit any action of any nature which is contradictory to these objectives.

All said and done, the other question which arises is that what is the objective of real interest and sedition? Do these not finally turn to people’s gain or loss and liking and disliking? Is not the basic purpose of laws a matter of value which is to be fixed in accordance with the desire and the liking of people? It is then that social behavior, under the shadow of their desirability and the means to achieve the desired objectives, becomes legalized. In case the reply to these questions is positive, one has to accept it necessarily that laws and generally the value system and also subjects like right and justice do not have any existence independent of peoples wishes and desires.

A detailed reply to these questions is subject to discussions on matters like: essence of values, the relationship of values with reality, the specification of the object of laws and its relationship with the good and bad of the individual and the society and difference between interest and expediency as well as similar other things. Each of these needs a detailed discussion and all these cannot be included in this paper. We are, therefore, compelled to discuss each subject as much as essential and required. The same has also been the trend followed by us in the subjects dealt with so far.

The first point to be taken into consideration is that the value of voluntary works is different from the value of their aims and objectives. That is to say the worthiness of action which is considered in relation to morality and laws means the desirability of the means and tools but the worthiness of objectives means their intrinsic and original desirability. Also the necessity which is related to the performance of good and beneficial deeds is analogical necessity and meant to achieve the result as far as preferentiality and causality are concerned as against the necessity related to the object itself and specially the ultimate object which is the achievement of bliss and real perfection. It is also indicative of the truth that every human being is personally desirous of his well being and perfection. This personal desirability is the basic motive required for the performance of any voluntary deed. Without in no voluntary action can be performed.

The next point is that though the essence of bliss is segregated from mans achievement of the greatest, most stable and highest joys, the achievement of pleasure does not necessarily lead to perfection. However, divine wisdom has created inclination for pleasures in human nature which are achieved by the fulfillment of his needs. The fulfillment of needs is essential for the continuation of the life of the individual and the mankind and also for the attainment of the means of perfection-basically speaking the achievement of perfection is considered as one of the spiritual needs of the human being. Hence, mans innate and natural instincts are in fact psychological incentives for a move towards the security of life and perfection. In this way, the achievement of ultimate perfection will be combined with perfect pleasure (the real bliss). They shall have therein what they desire. (25:16) And therein shall be what their souls yearn after anf (wherein) the eyes shall delight. (43:71) According to Holy Qur’an, bliss belongs to those who shall enter divine grace in the eternal world and awaited with eternal Paradise. And as to those who are made happy they shall be in the garden, abiding in it. (11:108)

Therefore, the meanings of true bliss and ultimate perfection are the same. Though there may not be any agreement or relationship between them.

The third point is that there is a reason for difference in determining the meaning of bliss and ultimate perfection and in identifying the path to achieve it. One such reason is the negligence of eternal life and differences in the efflorescence of the capabilities and rational growth. Here we cannot discuss this in great detail. However, the difference in peoples attachment for some specific pleasures or their preference of any joy over another cannot be considered as the reason for the non-existence of perfection or the absence of real inclination for certain desires. On the contrary, perfection is a philosophical essence which gets segregated for instance due to extremity of existence and its achievement brings pleasure and satisfaction. All that may lead man to ultimate perfection and eternal bliss, whatever the stages in between, shall be treated as possessing real good and value. Any of these actions which part of public relationship shall be considered as aimed at social which part of public relationship shall be considered as aimed at social welfare which is the objectives so close to laws. Consequently, just as eternal bliss and perfection are realistic and essence oriented and independent of propels or groups desires and capriciousness, the good and the corrupt which are also derived from the means to achieve this ultimate objective are real, essential and independent of desires and likings.

WELFARE OF INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETY:

Man has a variety of needs and requirements and the total fulfillment of all of them is not possible in this materialistic world which is the house of contradictions and hindrances. Many a times there is the need to sacrifice some of these for the sake of others. This is the stage when the question of selection comes to surface. Wisdom demands that the lower and the lesser requirement is sacrificed for the sake of higher one. However, all the human beings do not follow this principle. It may be due to feeble realization and identification or it may be due to being used to or attached with some of the enjoyments that the people prefer their lower and lesser requirements. It is in case of such people that it is said that they act against their interests.

Therefore, a prudent action is one which fulfils the more important requirements and achieves higher perfection. In reasoning. This is also true in regard to the clash between individual and group interests. That is to say that social life demands that certain individual interests be sacrificed for the sake of the society. Every individual should give away some of his individual benefits and desires in order to fulfill the interest of the society.

Clash between the interest of an individual and the society takes place in two ways. Firstly the sacrificing of an individual interest for the sake of society takes place such a manner that it fulfils the requirements of all the individuals of the society including this person who has given up his interest and that this person is granted another interest of the same value or greater that that. In this case his wisdom would call for such a sacrifice. In other words his own interest demands such a generosity.

The other case is that giving up of individual interest may not result in the achievement of equal or greater interest of the individual. That is to say such a generosity may provide him with no benefit or even if any benefit accrues to him it is lesser than the interest he has sacrificed. Can one say in such a situation that it would be wise of him to overlook his interest so as to enable others to achieve their own?

The fact it that a positive reply cannot be given to this question on the basis of materialistic outlook. It’s this outlook which explains the logic of profiteering. It is on this basis that every individual tries to exploit the society as much as he can irrespective of the great loss he would incur to others in this process. He would forego his interests only if he feels that if he did not do so he may have to suffer more and may not be able to derive grater benefit from the society.

As a matter of fact those who speak of society’s welfare and declare support for others interests and rights from a materialistic point of view are hypocrites and imposters. In fact their only purpose is to achieve their selfish motives and nothing else. This is the reasoning which is prevalent in most of the human societies and he claim to support truth, justice and human rights made by the leaders of the arrogance and their followers are nothing more that deception.

However. Some of the law experts and jurisprudents are of the view that the basis lies with the society and individual rights are only a part of the society’s rights. It is but natural that in case of clash between the rights of the individual and the society, individual rights have no place. However, irrespective of the intrinsic weakness of this view which is base on the denial of the real existence of the individual and despite the fact that various parties calling themselves as supporters of this view have in action treaded the path of others as is seen from the deeds of the socialists in different countries of the world, how can one convince an individual to the effect that he should rationally give up his personal interests without acquiring equal or greater benefit from the society.

We know that individuals can be made to be indulgent and by means of propagation and inciting their sentiments and feelings. One can also lead them to the battlefield by propagating nationalism and racial sentiments. It is not the question f misguiding the people; it is the question of finding out a rational solution of the problem.

It is through divine wisdom that a positive and clear-cut answer can be found out for this issue. It is because, firstly divine expediency demands that largest number of human beings achieve their own perfection and worldly comforts be given to human beings as the means to achieve this move for perfection. These should, therefore, be so exploited that the objective of creation in respect to all the individuals is realized.

Secondly, though indulgence and disposition may cause deprivation from material benefits but provide spiritual and moral perfection in return and their achievement is the real purpose of the creation of man and the world.

Thirdly, any deprivation suffered in this world in the path of divine pleasure and for the realization of the objective hidden in the creation of humanity shall be compensated for in the other world in a better and more perfect form.

Therefore, the reason for giving up ones own interests, in case their fulfillment conflicts with the interest of the society, is that divine expediency and the realization of the objectives of creation demand this. The way to convince people for indulging in such sacrifice is to make them realize that such an indulgence will on the one hand perfect their spirit and inner self bringing about enjoyment of conscience and spiritual pleasure and on the other hand provide them with eternal and everlasting. Bliss and closeness to divine benediction and unending heavenly blessing. These blessings are not comparable with the materialistic and worldly pleasures either in terms of quantity or quality. In this way the relationship of the divine legal system with ethical system and the divine concept of universe becomes clear.

RELATIONSHIP OF TRUTH WITH EXPEDIENCY

From what has been discussed above, the meaning of expediency and mischief and the need for the conformity of law with individual and social interests becomes clear. It is now the turn to moot the final question: what is the relationship between the truth and expediency?

In the beginning of the paper we pointed out that the word truth has different meanings. This difference must be carefully attended to so that no mistake or confusion takes place.

One of the meanings of truth in connection with our discussions is that deed should possess and appropriate and befitting aim and objective. That is to say it should cause the achievement of greater success. As against this, untruth means a deed which is devoid of such and objective, for instance meaningless and futile deeds.

According to this definition a deed which is expedient is true and an action devoid of expediency is untrue. Similarly, a law which specifies the first type of deed shall be true and the law which provides for the other type shall be untrue. In this way, truth and expedience shall be in conformity with and testifying each other. In other words, both the meanings shall be abstract essence and secondary philosophical intelligible which shall be segregated in consideration of the relationship between the action and the result accruing therefrom.

As far as rights as a legal term is concerned it means a legal privilege which is confirmed by individual or society and has a two-side relationship with the rightful and against whom the right is given, and necessarily provides and obligation for the opposite side. This is an essence of credibility which has close relationship with property. The basic difference is that in regard to property attention is not paid to two aforesaid relationships and only the relationship of owner with the property is taken into consideration

If the essence of right is considered in a wider sense and not limited within the circle of social relations, it would also include moral laws and would also hold true in case of relationship between the Creator and creation. However, the subject of truth should be related with voluntary action in some way or the other. If only the creative distinction of a being in exploiting the other being is taken into consideration there will be to place for credence to terms like right, property, etc., unless the privileged person performs voluntary deed in this connection or connected with the voluntary work of any other being. For instance, if the relationship of a tree with sunlight or the rainwater is taken note of and the negative or positive human effect is not given attention to the credence of right for the tree in relation to light and water will be nullified. But if human relationship is also added one can say the tree has the right to make use of sunlight and rain-water; meaning thereby that the man should not hinder the use of light or water. To be more appropriate, if the two parties to right the rightful and one against whom right is granted be free actors, this meaning would achieve better credence. For instance, it may be said that all human beings have the right to use sunlight and, therefore, nobody should hinder the usage of this divine blessing because in this case both, the rightful and the one against whom right is granted are human beings and subject of right is sunlight.

Therefore, the word right in legal and moral terms is used in instances where the possibility of exercising the will be someone having a free will is under consideration. It is so because morality and rights are voluntary deeds and their allied matters. Anything that is not connected with voluntary action is entirely alien to subject dealing with morality and law.

But the basic issue is that in cases where there is credence of right and duty what is the source of these credences? What is the basis to ascertain right and duty?

In order to reply this question certain instances are thought of, the most important of them being as follows:

(1) Right and duty are fixed by nature. It is the nature of tree which gives it the right to use sunlight, air and water; it is the nature of an animal which grants it the right to use vegetation. Also it is human nature which gives him the right to exploit vegetation and animals. Finally, it is the nature of a society which fixes the right and duty of individuals.

Irrespective of the fact that nature does not have an occult existence and especially because it cannot be proved that society has a nature, two other problems become evident:

Firstly, as pointed out the credence of right is correct for a thing or person only in case which necessitates the specification of duty for a person having a free will in that case. For instance, credence to the right of use of water, air and light for a tree is appropriate if it binds a man to observe this right and not to create hindrance in its usage. Any one who gives the right to a thing or person in fact provides a duty for the one who has free will to observe that right. Now the question is as to what authority has the trees nature on a man so as to fix such a duty for him? And reciprocally binds man to obey the order or the trees nature?

Secondly, when something causes clash between two beings, each of which want to exploit it, how can their right and duty be fixed? For example, if the life health or growth of man depends on drinking the water which an animal wants to drink, in that case will the right of man have preference or that of the animal? Who would specify such a right?

In reply to such a problem it can be said that universal nature which is the creator of all minor natures of man, animal and other creatures has bestowed greater right to the mightier and, therefore, mans right has a preference on animal rights.

Although it is a fact that the existence of the overall nature is not stable for the world the standard of right, at least in case of clash, in nothing but power and strength. Naturally, if the clash is between beings, the stronger man will have greater rights, this is the basis of the law of jungle and not the basis of human morality and laws.

(2) The other instance is that right and duty is fixed on the basis of their objectives. For instance, a tree moves to attain its particular objective which is the final stage of its grow. It should, therefore, exploit the means to achieve its ultimate goal. So is the ultimate object of mans move for perfection. It is this which decides its rights. As far as the clashes between human being are concerned, rights and duties should be so specified that the largest number of members of a society achieve those highest objectives.

However, this reply as also not convincing in any way because the dependence of a thing to reach its ultimate aim and perfection on the exploitation of other thing cannot be a convincing argument for man to ignore his own interests and desires. Similarly, he cannot create responsibility for any human being in relation to another individual because each of them is active and endeavor to reach their ultimate goal. How can, therefore, this individual submit to a limit for his own exploitations?

(3) The other matter is that the rights of every creature are fixed according to hi requirements. In a society its members have the right to exploit it according to their requirements. This case is similar to the previous one and raises similar doubts. In addition to this, the essence of the word requ8irement is doubtful and flexible and no specific limits can be fixed for that.

(4) The fourth case is that since right and duty go together, the right of a person is fixed in accordance with the obligation and responsibility he accepts for himself. In other words, everyone has the right to benefit from the achievements of a society to the extent he benefits the society. This equation and balancing of rights and duties of individuals in relation to each other is called justice.

This statement is acceptable in regard to rights resulting from contracts and rights accruing from performance of responsibilities which a man takes upon himself voluntarily. But as far as primary rights and duties are concerned, such as the right of a new born on his father and mother and their obligation in regard to their children, as well as the right of the disabled and the born-invalids on the society, the above statement does not solve these issues.

(5) The fifth case relates to the fact that the right and duty of each individual is fixed on the basis of depreciation and deflection of the interests of the individual and the society. This is a more serene matter that those discussed earlier. It clarifies the relationship between right and expediency better than others. However, it should be noted that firstly human interests are not entirely concerned with material and worldly interests. While accounting for and evaluating these interests, attention has to be paid to moral and eternal interests as well. Secondly, the evaluation of various interests and the fixation of the extent of their trends is a very difficult and complicated matter and, as a matter of fact, it is beyond the capability of ordinary human beings. It is here that clarifies mans need for guidance through revelation is clear. And sent down with them the Book and the balance that men may conduct themselves with equity (57:25)

Finally, one-minute point remains uncovered by all that has been said above. It is that on what basis man has the right of expropriation in things beyond himself, whether inanimate objects, vegetables, animals or other human beings? Again the question is that irrespective of contracts and optional commitments is man considered responsibility in regard to them? Wherefrom does he get the right to use his limbs and organs?

A clear and logical reply to this question cannot be obtained on grounds of material outlook and without taking into consideration the principles of religious faiths. However, such a reply can be given on the basis of divine outlook.

When human being feels the necessity of giving credence to essences like right and duty in order to direct his voluntary movements and behaviors, he has, in the first instance, to take into consideration the actual relationship amongst the creatures so as to establish credibility on the basis of realities. However, the most fundamental realistic relationship can be found between the creator and the created. It is the relationship of actual ownership of the Almighty Allah towards His creatures. Hence, the first right of possession of creatures is established for the Creator. On this basis the right of possession for every existent being has finally to be authenticated by divine design. Therefore, if the Almighty Allah did not permit man to use his limbs and organs he could not have this right. The right to possession of other beings, all of which are the total and absolute property of the Creator could not, therefore, be imagined. Also, the first duty of a man originates from the real overlordship of the Almighty Allah and no duty can take precedence over it. All other rights and duties spring from this right and duty.

No doubt, man due to negligence from the Almighty Allah and His real ownership, turns attention towards his genetic domination on his own organs, limbs and energies and considers that he has the right of possession on them. But no sooner he realized his own bondage towards the Almighty Allah; he would know that his ownership of his own organs and limbs is along the ownership of Allah and towards other servants (of Allah). No doubt man sees his possession of blessings available in his environment as free and unrestricted. It is only in connection with clash with others that he realized the need to give credence to rights and duties. It is on the basis of standards such as precedence in possession or severity of requirements etc. that man gives credence to laws, preferences and privileges and accepts duties and responsibilities. In fact the motive for these credits is the need for a comfortable and peaceful social life which cannot be achieved except by observing these rules. But once this matter gets related to Origin and Resurrection, the question arises that if mans deeds become the source of credence of right on the basis of an external element, why cannot his own creation and that of the entire world become the source of right for the Creator? If the comforts of social life induce him to accept limitations for his own possessions and recognize obligations for himself, why should he not pay attention to the natural inclination towards attainment of spiritual perfection and eternal bliss and accept responsibility towards their achievement.

However, the right and duty which relate to matters beyond social relations go farther than their legal essence. But in consideration of the fact that legal system forms a part of the total value system, they cannot be considered wholly alien to each other. So is the case of value system which cannot be considered unrelated with religious order?

In conclusion, it is said that according to divine thought mans primary right of possession of his organs and limbs and other God given blessings and comforts originate from the Will of Allah towards the perfection of creatures and the ever-increasing realization of their accomplishment. If and when there is a clash in the perfection of different creatures, the lesser perfect beings are sacrificed for the sake of more perfect beings. For instance, vegetation and animals are subjected to the exploitation by man who has achieved greater perfection, both dejure and be facto. Similarly, if the realization of accomplishment for all the individuals of a society is subject is subjected to the sacrifice of some, this has to he done. No doubt the Almighty Allah will not leave such sacrifices unawarded and their sacrifices will be compensated for in the best possible manner in the eternal world.

Thus all rights and duties, whether moral or legal revert to the prudent will of Allah. In case where wisdom can minutely discover the requirements of prudence, there will be no need for divine revelation. But in most of the cases need for divine revelation and Prophethood is felt because of complicated formula and lack of comprehension by ordinary wisdom of all the changes and pressures of their effects and the exact balancing of preferences and evaluation. It is for reason that Allah, the Prudent, in consideration of His extreme Benevolence and as demanded by His Wisdom has sent prophets and divine laws so that men may recognize the path of their perfection and possess accurate equilibrium for evaluation. And the heaven, He raised it high, and He made the balance, that you may not be inordinate in respect of the measure (55:7-8). In this manner, the harmony between genesis and legislation also becomes clear. [mesbahyazdi.org]


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Education

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In the name of Allah


Foundations and Principles of Education in Islam

Ayatullah Muhammad Taqi Mesbah


CONTENTS:

Introduction
Theoretical Foundations of Education in Islam
The Practical Principles of Education in Islam


Introduction

Each educational system is based on the idea and vision of its founders about a number of elements: the true nature and the ontological dimensions of human being, the objective(s) they consider for education, and their idea about how human beings develop and advance toward the given objective(s). In fact, these visions and understandings shape the foundations of education in every system of thought, even though they may not be consciously taken into consideration, or may not be explicitly mentioned.

Naturally, Islamic educational system is also based on a series of specific foundations, stemming from an Islamic vision about the aforementioned issues. Therefore, it is necessary for us to first and foremost pay attention to these theoretical bedrocks, and then explain educational practical principles on their basis before trying to elaborate on the Islamic educational system.

By deliberating upon the Islamic idea about the true nature of human beings, their ontological dimensions, the goal of their creation, their ultimate perfection, and the way they move towards this end, one is able to consider the following twelve points as cornerstones of an Islamic education. Of course, the ultimate goal of Islamic education is but preparing the ground for maximal perfection of human beings, and practical aims are understood in this direction.


Theoretical Foundations of Education in Islam

1. The True Nature of Human Being: From an Islamic point of view, human being is not merely a corporeal organism, but rather possesses a celestial element that remains after the dispersion of body, and lives forever, either with perpetual beatitude or eternal misery. In fact, human being is human because of one’s soul, and body serves as a means of activity, or as a vehicle for action and motion; of course, the soundness and strength of an instrument is something that should be taken care of.

2. The Position of Human Being in the World: Human being, from amongst the creatures of this world, is blessed with certain bounties and capacities that differentiates it from others. Subtleties that exist in human exterior and interior organs, especially in the brain and nervous system, and its unique psychological capabilities cannot be found in any other living organism. Due to these same characteristics, human being is able to manipulate natural events and to employ them in the service of its own progress and perfection. Bestowing such privileges upon human beings is a Divine veneration, as mentioned in the Qur’an.

3. Human being on a crossroad (between two infinites): Powers and potentialities, which the Almighty Allah has bestowed upon humankind, are one’s genetic and innate assets for moving forward towards the final goal. Nevertheless, putting these divine resources to work depends on one’s own will, choice, decision, and selection. One can take advantage of these bounties to travel the path to the actual perfection and obtain eternal beatitude, as one can also abuse them and hence, journey toward slump and baseness so much so one becomes less worthy than animals, and buys eternal misery for oneself. Therefore, the human route can be mapped between two infinities, one ascending to infinite perfection and beatitude, and the other crashing into infinite wretchedness and anguish.4 So the ultimate human value and dignity is contingent upon choosing piety5, and hence, not all people would possess absolute and equal value, but rather believers and committed people who act properly, have positive value, and disbelievers who commit improper deeds gain negative value, each of whom have multilevel ranking6.

4. The aim of the creation of humankind (Ultimate perfection): Humankind is created with unique qualities in order to travel the path to perfection with free will and conscious choice7, to be worthy of receiving specific blessings bestowed upon one as a result of one’s discretional move, and to reach the position of proximity to God, accompanied by perpetual beatitude. And since such a journey must be done at one’s discretion, there must be an opposite alternative path culminating in permanent misery and punishment.8

5. Temporal world as a prelude to the hereafter: Considering the aim of human creation, it becomes evident that one’s life in this world is a limited and preparatory transience for self-realization, progress, and the objectification of potentialities. The stable and eternal result of this life appears in the hereafter. If people choose, in this world, the direction of perfection, they will reside in the edifice of everlasting bounty and mercy, and if they choose the opposite, they will go to the place of interminable torment and decay. According to the Qur’an, this world is ‘the stage of trial’, so that the righteous are differentiated from the transgressors, and in the hereafter, all will meet what they deserve.

6. General means of movement: Human ascent towards the summits of perfection and beatitude, or one’s descent into the canyons of decay and destruction are the results of one’s actions and behavior, whether internal (such as remembering God) or external. The most one acts freely and consciously, the most effective they will become upon one’s destiny by accelerating the movement. Such behaviors notwithstanding, no ethical good or evil exists, and hence no reward or punishment is deserved.

7. Conditions for volitional movement: Crystallizing one’s ascending or descending movement, human volitional behaviors stem from one’s instinctive and natural tendencies. Giving direction to such actions depends on knowing specific facts, believing in certain realities, and adopting special values. Moreover, human external actions are contingent upon natural and social possibilities and the availability of outward conditions too.

8. The bare minimum in effective choice: Human primary behaviors (such as those in the age of infancy) stem from innate inclinations, information gathered through simple experiments, and the use of material conditions which are provided without one’s volition. This kind of behaviors though not totally devoid of some sort of decision and choice has no final effect on one’s eternal beatitude or misery because they lack sufficient freedom and awareness. Gradually, behaviors become more complex, and fanning the flames of desires, acquiring knowledge and insights, and bringing about exterior means and conditions are more or less included in the domain of one’s volition and choice. These conditions, therefore, pave the way for taking long and decisive steps, which comes about when a person achieves one’s necessary cognitive development (the age of puberty and duty). At this point, the minimum necessary condition for conscious choice effectual in perpetual beatitude and misery is attained, and an individual becomes subject to serious responsibilities.

9. The relation of individual differences with responsibilities: Human individuals are not on a par regarding their God-given possessions (both physical abilities and psychological capabilities), as they vary in enjoying natural and social bounties as well as means for external activities. Such differences are the results of the cause-effect system that governs the world, and follows the wisely Divine plan. The quantity and quality of responsibilities, and the vastness or narrowness of the scope for ascension or descension differs respectively. The general law is that everyone is responsible before God who has bestowed these bounties upon him/her within the limits of one’s capacity and capability, and according to the scope of one’s available choices and alternatives. Therefore, the extent of one’s possible progress and perfection and the degree of one’s potential relapse and regress would be symmetrical and proportionate.

10. The effect of education (the role of teacher and educator): Human beings have the opportunity to receive help from others in acquiring knowledge, learning values, and actualizing their potentialities in general, as well as correcting their mistakes and misdeeds. Thereof, the important role of teachers and educators become evident, because they are the ones who can broaden the range of one’s knowledge and reasoning by teaching worthy knowledge and providing useful information, and are able to assist their audience in choosing the right option, controlling their selfish desires, achieving moral virtues such as self-devotion and sacrifice, and in sum, to give them a hand to worship God. In this way, they grow to be precious means for applying the Divine goal in creating human beings, as well as taking long steps in the direction of their own perfection.

11. The inevitability of social life and its requisites: People need to cooperate and coexist with their fellow human beings in order to be able to continue their living, meet their life needs, and fight various threats. Social life, on its turn, rests on the division of labor, just distribution of benefits and products, laws and rulings, and an executing system for their implementation. Without such mechanisms, social life will be crippled by anarchy, and people are deprived of resources necessary for their journey toward perfection. On the other hand, the isolation of individuals makes their life miserable, or even impossible, as it leaves society without their cooperation, and both the consequences are against the expediency and rationale of the creation of humankind. Moreover, it is basically in the context of a social life that various efforts and conflicts become possible, and ordeals and decisions in different dimensions are given a chance.

12. Social responsibilities: Since the path an individual travels during one’s life is bilateral, and its direction depends upon the decision and choice made by the individual or community, there are always people who not only take steps against their own expediencies, toward misery and self-destruction, but also obstruct and hinder others from progress. They initiate various forms of injustices and aggressions, and if there is no effectual endeavor aiming at guiding the misled, eliminating the mischief of aggressors, and standing up for the disadvantaged and victims, before long, aggression and misdeed will dominate the world, and there will remain no opportunity for philanthropists and those who are apt to advance towards perfection. As a consequence, different sorts of social responsibilities are respectively determined for individuals, groups, and official departments of the government.


The Practical Principles of Education in Islam

Based on the aforementioned foundations, one can conclude some general points for the quality of education, we call them here, ‘the practical principles of education’, and they are as follow:

1. An accurate appraisal of the material and spiritual needs: The content of education should be arranged in a way that the instructed recognize the essentiality of the psychological and spiritual dimension of human being, and regards material necessities as means (and not ends) At the same time, one has to avoid extremism in ascetic advices which may terminate in bodily harms, or even sometimes psychological abnormalities; one should not forget observing sanity principles, physical education, and rationally calculated recreation.

2. Provoking the sense of self-esteem and self-respect: An educator should stimulate a sense of self-esteem and self-respect due to the unique position of human being amongst creatures, and exceptional bounties the Almighty God has bestowed upon humankind whether physical and psychological, or external and social as well as the dominance He has given to people over nature. A teacher, therefore, should make students cognizant of the fact that engaging in base actions is tantamount to soiling the jewel of humanity, and following selfish desires equals the enslavement and abatement of one’s intellect and heavenly spirit. On the other hand, because bodily organs and psychic forces are trusts of God, the same as the external bounties; therefore, one’s encounter with, and employment of, them has to be in accordance with the consent of their real owner, i.e. the Almighty God, so that His trust is not breached. A teacher and educator should also consider students as trusts of God, entrusted to him/her in order to be taught the best material by the best method and to be trained in the best manner.

3. Struggle against oblivion: As humankind is constantly on a crossing, one leading to infinite advancement and the other to infinite relapse, the instructed should always be made attentive to the significance of his/her situation, so that one is not conceited by the prime blessings of God and the temporal bounties. Such awareness prevents one both from being confused like some humanists who assume these privileges a reason for eternal pride, and from passing one’s time and entire life with negligence and vanity. Educators should also take advantage of the innate instincts of seeking self-interest and self-perfection, and avoiding harms in the process of speeding up one’s move toward perfection, as it is apparent in the teachings of the Holy Qur’an and the tradition of the infallibles (may God’s peace be upon them).

4. Vivifying God’s remembrance: Taking the goal of human creation, i.e. attaining God’s proximity, into consideration, one has to vivify the remembrance of God in the heart of the instructed, so that the student is provided with spiritual peace and serenity, as well as a direction-finder to determine and/or correct one’s itinerary. This also can serve one to enhance one’s actions by injecting into it a divine motivation.

5. Exchange of finite with the infinite: Considering the fact that the temporal life is a prelude to the hereafter, one should conclude two significant results: first, does not think of temporal pleasures and sufferings as cardinal; neither enamored with its joys, nor fear its pains. Secondly, one has to recognize the true value of every moment of one’s life, because by spending them in doing what God desires, one can attain eternal beatitude, as exhausting them in ways antagonist to values will lead to eternal misery. Therefore, every moment of life is priceless, not comparable to the value of tons of gold and diamond.

6. Fighting dependency: Since one’s perfection and eternal beatitude is solely determined by one’s own willful activity, and even liability for intercession (Shafa’at) should also be acquired through proper deeds, so the educator must revive the spirit of self-reliance and independence, reinforce a sense of responsibility and conscience, and struggle against encumberment, subjection, and subordination to others, and remind the instructed this point in all behaviors and encounters (i.e. in writing homework, etc.).

7. Attentiveness toward freedom in action: Considering the role of ‘free choice’ in the human motion toward perfection, the instructed should be given the opportunity for freedom in action, instead of pushing him/her into passivity. An educator has to avoid making an imposition and infliction out of instructions and tutorials; instead, in cases that the expedience of the student necessitates an intervention by the educator, one has to be careful to do the job indirectly, so that the learner does not feel much pressure and limitation. For this reason, obligations should, as far as possible, accompany logical arguments and does not exceed the boundaries of guidance.

8. Observing the principle of graduality: Taking the graduality of human progress and perfection, whether natural or acquired, into account, a teacher and educator should always be mindful about what the students’ age and natural/social factors necessitate. Accordingly, one has to try to elevate the instructed gradually and step by step, without expecting swift and sudden jumps, as he/she must take intelligent measures to prevent them from excessive academic or self-control activities which might result in physical ailment or spiritual disorder.

9. Flexibility and equilibrium: Because of individual and group differences, necessary and rational flexibility should be observed in both programming curriculum and its enforcement. One has to also avoid insistence on rigid and monotonous schedules and those that does not make distinctions between different students, culminating in breaching their rights, and the frustration of most of them. Therefore, one has to take account of equilibrium as a principle.

10. Giving priority to what is more important: Educators/teachers play a significant role in growing young students and cultivating their potentialities. Bearing this in mind, they have to carefully take the expedience of each and every learner into account, as well as what is suitable for the whole of the Islamic society and the human society in general. Both curriculum planners and educators should steer clear of programs and courses that waste time and squander life, or record low compared to superior goals. They should pay more attention to issues more effective regarding human eternal wellbeing (e.g. Islamic beliefs and ethics), and teach them more suitably and more appealingly, and try to set themselves as good role models for the behavior of their students.

11. Natural and social knowledge: Social life is inevitable and has its requirements and obligations. On the other hand, material enjoyment is necessary for providing individual and social needs, and for sustaining the dignity and honor of the Islamic society. These facts reveal the necessity of introducing natural, mathematical, and social sciences to a curriculum, by delineating general and specialized syllabi, carefully taking into consideration students’ age and mental requirements as well as society’s needs and possibilities. It is worth mentioning that in all cases, the main goal, namely, proximity to the Almighty God has to be given special attention and vehemence. A pedagogue should never lose any opportunity for reviving divine motivations and transcendent values, and for removing negligence and fighting egoism. In other words, all goals are to be dealt with as introductions to the ultimate end.

12. Reinforcing a sense of responsibility toward social expediency: The variety of social duties requires the educational system to be directed toward solidarity and altruism. Strengthening such virtues as cooperation, mutual aid, self-sacrifice, disinterestedness, benevolence, and seeking justice; and fighting vigorously such vices as selfishness, and indifference towards social expediencies should be high on the agenda of both those planning curricula and teachers/educators in treating students. Special emphasis has to be put on cultivating in the instructed such morale as chivalry, combating injustice, struggling corruption, taking jihad against tyrants, and supporting the oppressed and the deprived. In this way, qualified and efficient people are trained for building an ideal society who can play their roles in actualizing the divine goals on earth.[mesbahyazdi.org]


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Worldview

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“Importance of the Problems of World View"

By: Ayatollah Mohammed Taqi Misbah Yazdi


CONTENTS:

Introduction

Chapter 1: The Fundamental Problems of World-View
Chapter 2: Evaluating the Fundamental problems
Chapter 3: Spiritual Philosophy and Scientific Truths
Chapter 4: Philosophy and Science
Chapter 5: Scientific Philosophy
Chapter 6: Metaphysics


Introduction

Every activity engaged in by man, whether on the level of individual or social life, is undoubtedly a result of particular psychological drives and inclinations, and is fashioned with the aid of sense perception and bodily skills and powers under different temporal and spaceial conditions. For example, man is driven to eat and drink by his instinct to nourish himself, and is motivated to help the weak and the needy because of his emotions of sympathy for other human beings. Then, by using his sense organs, he identifies the desired foods or identifies the weak and needy to be assisted, and carries out the desired tasks through the use of his bodily faculties.

The above-mentioned activities could be said to possess the specific "human" characteristic when they are guided by his reason, in addition to his instinctive and emotional drives, which man shares with other animals. That is, the eating of food and the drinking of water should be done with the aim of maintaining one's health and strength, and the emotions and instincts must be satisfied within the framework of some rational principles and under the guidance of reason. In many cases, however, reason is overwhelmed by emotion and instinct, and is unable to perform an effective role. When this happens, the activity is considered devoid of any human value.

The practical guidance provided by reason is itself controlled by the general notions and ideas, which constitute the fundamental basis of man's existence as an intelligent being. For example, the belief in the necessity of maintaining one's health, or the urge to make sacrifices for the sake of a higher aim, is based on particular conceptions of the individual and society. It is these general conceptions and basic patterns of thinking that play the major role in giving shape and direction to man's efforts and struggles, and either make them meaningful and worthwhile in the human sense or deprive them of human meaning and worth. These basic patterns of thought are termed as `world-view'. It is on account of the differences in world-view that fundamental divergence in personal behaviour and social outlook takes place.

Just as the guidance provided by reason on practical matters is ignored in acts lacking in the `human' character, when it loses all its effective force, so also the theoretical decrees of reason are not always given the attention they require. Many people never think of the `why' of their actions, and do not build their lives on the basis of well thoughtout ideas. Such people either content themselves with imitating others, or are simply indifferent to fundamental questions, although perceptive observers find their behaviour to conform to a particular type of world-view. For example, the conduct of an individual who thinks of nothing other than enjoyment of transitory pleasures and pursuit of selfish interest is consistent with an individualistic and materialistic world-view, even if he has not accepted materialism consciously as a reasoned philosophical viewpoint.

Therefore, our efforts and activities are `human' and `reasonable' when, firstly, they are performed not merely under the influence of animal instinct but on the basis of understanding and under the guidance of reason; secondly, when they are based on a logical and coherent system of thought and a correct world-view, not on raw adopted notions, or on an illogical and incorrect world-view.

In view of the above-mentioned principle, the necessity for the selection of a reasonable world-view capable of lending itself to rational justification is clear. Moreover, the existence of strong and conflicting currents in the realm of thought and belief, and the vulnerability of indefensible beliefs clearly indicates the need for learning logical arguments which confirm the chosen world-view and the necessity of acquiring the capacity to defend it.


Chapter 1:

The Fundamental Problems of World-View


The world evidently consists of various kinds of phenomena, the study of whose characteristics has given birth to specialized fields of science. Moreover, despite the expansion in different spheres of knowledge and the vast number of wonderful and valuable discoveries made in various disciplines, there still remain, in our immediate surroundings and on this very planet, many things unknown, the effort to solve whose mystery has occupied our inquisitive scientists.

However, as already mentioned, man has always been confronted with a series of fundamental questions. The need to find correct and convincing answers to such questions is a pressing demand of his innermost nature. Furthermore, since these problems concern matters outside the realm of the senses and empirical experience, their solution cannot be expected from the experimental sciences and must be provided by reason and logic alone.

It so happens that the correct solution of the aforementioned problems is of fundamental importance in giving meaning and value to human existence, and directing man's voluntary activities into proper channels. The opposite of this is also true, in that giving wrong answers to these questions makes life empty, meaningless, and devoid of worthwhile goals, dragging man into the abyss of irreparable loss. Nor can man afford to ignore these fundamental questions, since by doing so he would, in addition to having to endure the pain of doubt, perplexity, and anxiety, deprive himself of the opportunity of attaining the ultimate aim of creation: perfection and everlasting felicity.

One of those fundamental questions which man must answer is whether the phenomena we encounter in our world owe their existence solely to material actions and reactions, without any participation or intervention of a nonmaterial power. Is there no nonmaterial power involved either in the emergence of the phenomena or in the existence of matter itself? Or, to put it another way, does matter constitute the totality of being, or does it constitute only a part of existence and relies on something beyond itself for its being?

The above question, which itself can be analysed into a number of other questions, is not limited to the properties and characteristics of any particular group of physical creatures, so that it may be answerable by some specific science through its own particular method. It is, on the contrary, a philosophical question, which must be studied by reason through intellectual speculation and analysis, even though the starting point for such speculation is empirical knowledge in its widest sense, which includes inner and direct experience as well.

The answer to the above question, whether in the positive or the negative, constitutes a part of one's world-view, plays an important role in forming a basic aspect of a person's intellectual approach which may be called "ontology".

Another basic question is whether the life of each individual human being is limited to the few years he lives in this world, or whether there is another life for him after he passes away, much longer and probably even an everlasting one. And this question in turn raises another one: Does man, beside possessing a physical body, also possess a soul which can continue to live after the death of the body or not? Then, there is the last question, which is also related to the first ontological question, whether being is equivalent to material existence or is wider than that.

The solution to the above-mentioned problem also, whatever it may be, constitutes another aspect of an individual's world-view, which may be called here `anthropology'.

And finally, the third fundamental issue to be settled before turning one's attention to the details and selecting a particular course for one's life is: What is the most certain way of knowing the best programme for individual and social life? Is there any fool-proof way beside the usual ways commonly adopted by most people which so often lead to contradictory results, which would guarantee the certainty of results?

The importance of the last question becomes more evident when the answer to the second question is in the affirmative; that is, when we conclude that man is immortal and that one must prepare beforehand for the felicity of afterlife through conscious effort during the limited period of this life. When such a belief is accepted, the need for a sure way of determining the relationship between the two lives, and an elaborate plan that would guarantee everlasting felicity becomes clearer. And the more the importance ascribed to the everlasting life, the greater is the significance of the path leading to felicity in it. This issue may therefore be called the problem of "methodology." Accordingly, the fundamental problems of world-view are: ontology, anthropology, and methodology.


Chapter 2:

Evaluating the Fundamental problems


The solution of the aforementioned fundamental problems is of foremost importance, because it plays a basic role in shaping and giving direction to man's personal and social life, and, logically, should be taken up before any other issue. Also, it is of special significance because it involves unlimited gain and loss. In other words, if the answer to the fundamental questions raised is in the affirmative, the possibility is opened up for man of deriving infinite benefit from his life.

If it is proved that being is not coextensive with matter, and that the world has a supreme Creator who is the Maker, Sustainer, and Nourisher of all things, and possesses infinite power, knowledge, and mercy, and if it is proved that man's life is not limited to this short, worldly existence, but that it is followed by an everlasting life accompanied either by felicity or misery, and that our life in this world is a preliminary stage in which we determine the course of our life in the Hereafter through our voluntary actions, and if it is proved that there is a guaranteed method for obtaining the knowledge of a correct life-programme that can take care of our felicity in both the lives, and that this method has been communicated by the Almighty God through His chosen messengers to mankind in general, it will have a tremendous impact on man's life. In fact, the value given to the vital human activities by such a view of reality is incomparably greater than the combined worth of all the advancements made by science and the discoveries and inventions made by man. This is so because however great the value of these inventions and discoveries may be, it is still finite and limited, while the value of this view is unlimited since it makes it possible for man to attain unlimited and everlasting felicity. And it is obvious that the unlimited cannot be compared with the limited.

The objection may be raised here that the probability of the fundamental questions being answered positively is so small that it is not worth considering. It should be kept in mind, however, that however small this probability may be (1/n), it would still retain its positive value since its multiple is infinity; (infinity x n = infinity). To put it in the language of economics, the `expected value' of any investment depends on two factors: (1) the percentage of probability of success, and (2) the estimated amount of the profit. It is the product of these two that determines the `expected value.' For example, if we want to see which of two business ventures is more profitable for investment, it is not enough to take into account the percentage of probability of each one alone. We should also consider the estimated amount of profit each venture is likely to yield. Thus, if the percentage of the probability of success in the first venture is 10%, while that of the second venture is 20%, but if the amount of the profit the first venture is likely to yield is ten times that of the second venture, then we must conclude that the expected profit in the first venture is five times greater than that in the second one, despite the fact that the probability of success in the first venture is half of that of the second one. This is so because the product of the two multiples in the first case (0.1 x 10 = 1) is five times greater than that in the second case (0.2 x 1 = 0.2).

The conclusion that may be drawn from the above example is that it is highly preferable to handle problems whose solution promises unlimited benefit, even if our chances of solving them be very small. Furthermore, the value of insight into such problems cannot be compared to that of any other science, even if the results produced by these sciences be one hundred per cent certain and reliable. Thus, indifference to the various aspects of one's world-view and negligence of its fundamental problems is not a reasonable and rationally justifiable attitude. Answering these fundamental questions in the negative without any sufficient evidence is even more unjustifiable.

SECTION: The Spiritual and Materialist Philosophies

Although the fundamental questions facing man have been answered in different ways and the differences in these answers have created various philosophies and schools of thought, yet by taking into account the positive and negative answers, we can distinguish and divide the various philosophies into the two general categories of materialist and spiritual. Islam is a perfect example of the spiritual schools of thought, whereas the most prominent contemporary example of the materialist schools is Marxism.

The tenets of the Islamic world-view are none other than the well-known threefold doctrines of the faith. These are: the belief in the One true God; the belief in resurrection on the Day of Judgement; the belief in what God has revealed to His Messengers, (in arabic: tawheed, maad, nabowa). In other words, Islam answers in the affirmative to each of the fundamental questions, and considers faith in them to be the real basis of man's happiness and felicity. It undertakes the solution of life's all other problems by relying on these three basic doctrines. In fact, it considers all solutions as the branches of a tree whose roots are these three principal beliefs. On the contrary, the materialist philosophies deny the existence of anything nonmaterial, do not believe that man has any life except this brief earthly existence, and deny the assurance held out by revelation.

Although the fundamental doctrines of the Islamic faith have been expounded and proven throughout the past centuries and on various levels, and there does not remain any doubt or uncertainty about any of them, this does not affect the basic fact that the contemporary strength of any set of beliefs hinges on two sorts of studies: one devoted to proving the validity of those beliefs, and the second, devoted to refuting contrary viewpoints. In other words, a double insight is necessary. In the case of Islam, unless the points of disagreement with other ideologies are identified, the areas that are made the targets of the opponents' criticisms and attacks are pinpointed, and a proper defence consisting of clear and logical answers is provided to the common Muslim individual, we cannot be sure of the stability of the faith on the level of the general public, and be certain of the people's steadfastness in the face of the waves of challenging ideologies. Moreover, just as in the past ideological and theological books were written in accordance with the intellectual challenges of the times and with the aim of answering their prevailing doubts, so must the ideological discussions of today be formulated in accordance with the philosophies and schools of thought now current, and with the aim of repelling their ideological attacks.

What makes defensive discussions specially essential today is that materialist philosophies are not being set forth for the mere purpose of proposing solutions to the fundamental theoretical questions, but are, in fact, being propagated in order to serve the political interests of the superpowers who consider exploitation of the emotions of the world's hardworking and simple people as the best means of attaining their colonialist aims. Thus in order to disarm the people of their deep-rooted, liberating spiritual world-view, they have taken recourse in a philosophy tuned to the shallow understanding of the majority of workers and farmers. At the same time, they have tried to adorn materialism, which is one of the most reactionary and baseless of the ancient dogmas, with scientific embellishments, and pretend that it is a modern and "scientific" philosophy. Nor have they spared the use of all sorts of sophistry, paralogism, and misrepresentation to achieve this end.

The truth of the matter is that the superpowers have used materialism, which is based on empiricism, as a means of attracting the uneducated masses and as an excuse for sanctioning their propensities for improper and unethical conduct. In order to deceive the educated classes, they have borrowed some of the postulates of the experimental sciences and incorporated them into materialism. Moreover, to make sure that the probable rejection of these postulates does not destroy the foundations of their philosophy, they have taken refuge in "dialectical logic," presenting all truths to be relative and variable, so that scientific progress not only would not invalidate their doctrines, but would, on the contrary, appear to support them.

We may maintain, therefore, that defending the positions of Islamic ideology, clarifying any of its ambiguities which may lend themselves to misrepresentation, and exposing all those who have made spiritual philosophy the target of unfair and dishonest accusations, is not only an authentic philosophical and intellectual duty and a divinely ordained obligation in regard to guiding the Muslims and strengthening the foundations of their faith, but is also an Islamic social responsibility in regard to defending Islam and the existence of the Muslim countries, which have become targets of ideological, political, and colonialist attacks by the communist block.

It must be pointed out here that by emphasizing the necessity for `double insight' and `two-faceted defence' we do not mean to say that such insight and understanding is the `sufficient cause' for creating faith and inclination towards the right path, or that the only reason for being drawn towards atheism and other devious paths is ignorance about correct, logical, and convincing answers to criticisms. Our purpose is simply to indicate the importance of defensive arguments alongside the affirmative ones, and to emphasize that these two activities are some of the necessary conditions for creating a stable faith, though are not the sufficient condition for it. There are other conditions necessary for the stability of faith, specially in regard to the masses of people, the most important of which is spiritual readiness and freedom from moral corruption. Just as hedonism and moral irregularities may be caused by belief in materialism, belief in materialist philosophies may also be occasioned by strong attachment to bodily pleasures and moral corruption; since one's love of pleasures and lusts may lead him, unconsciously, to search for and be attracted by philosophies which promote and sanction such conduct, and to avoid all schools of thought which teach abstinence from such endless pursuit of carnal pleasures.

It is, therefore, necessary that the real seeker after truth should cleanse himself of all moral impurities and all selfish and carnal desires, and, relying on nothing except logic and reason for guidance, liberate himself from the bondage of blind imitation of individuals, groups, or nations, simply because they possess some kind of social, political or technical superiority.


Chapter 3

Spiritual Philosophy and Scientific Truths


A glance at the fundamental philosophical questions, to which spiritual and materialist philosophies give contradictory answers, clearly shows that the areas of contention between the two opposing points of view have nothing to do with experimental matters. Whatever the solutions found to scientific problems, they would not in any way affect the way these philosophical questions are answered. For example, accepting or rejecting Euclid's theory of space, holding to the view that mass is absolute or relative, or the validity or invalidity of the theory of mutation in biology, and other conflicting theories in the various sciences-none of these tell us anything about whether the divine or the materialistic philosophies are true; since the subject of discussion in philosophy is not the same as that of the experimental sciences, and the methods of investigation used in the two fields are completely different from each other.

It is wrong to imagine, therefore, that it is materialistic philosophy alone that accepts scientific facts and affirms the validity of the laws governing the transformations and interactions of physical phenomena, while spiritual philosophy denies them and sets forth the theory of creation in their place. The materialists hold that belief in the theory of creation finds its genesis, in the distant past, in man's ignorance of the physical causes of phenomena. Therefore, now, when due to the advances in the experimental sciences, the system of physical causation has been fully discovered, there is no room left for such notions as that of creation or the dependence of phenomena on the will of the Creator .

We know, however, that the dispute between the spiritual and the materialist points of view is not about affirming or denying the relationship between various phenomena, the nature of such relationships, or the laws which govern nature. What the dispute is about is whether the material world, with all the relationships existing between its various parts, be they known or as yet undiscovered by us, depends on a Being which transcends matter or not.

It is obvious that if such a dependence does exist, it would not be of the sort that exists between material bodies, and, therefore, cannot be studied by experimental methods; because just as the nonmaterial Being (if it exists) cannot be known through sense experience, the dependence of material phenomenon on it, also, cannot be studied through laboratory instruments. In order to make this point even clearer, we must briefly discuss philosophy and the experimental sciences, the fundamental differences between the problems with which they deal, and the methodologies which they employ.


Chapter 4

Philosophy and Science


By the way of an introduction we would like to remind the readers that there are many words which have a number of meanings. At times one of them has a wider and more general signification than the others. Sometimes the use of such words may lead to misunderstanding, and it is necessary to make sure that one understands the exact sense in which a word is being used. In philosophy, there are a number of such terms; for example, `potentiality,' `possibility,' `soul,' `reason,' and so on.

Among the terms that share common significations are the words `philosophy' and `science.' In the past the word philosophy (literally. `the love of wisdom') was applied to all branches of knowledge, including the natural sciences, mathematics, divinities, ethics, and politics. Every branch of knowledge had a special methodology of its own, although sometimes it happened that inappropriate methods were used; for example, a problem belonging to the natural sciences was investigated through a purely rationalist approach, whereas it should have been studied through the experimental method.

In the Middle Ages other branches of learning were added to the aforementioned list, until it came to include almost all the thinking of that age.

After the Renaissance, and specially from the seventeenth century onward, those sciences whose method of enquiry was experimental, gradually separated from philosophy, and the term eventually came to be applied exclusively to that branch of learning the problems of which lay outside the realm of experiment and could be solved only through a purely rational, theoretical method. This branch of learning is called "metaphysics" or "the first philosophy". The term "philosophy" is also used to refer to the process of explaining the basic principles necessary for investigating the problems of a particular science, such as the philosophy of science and the philosophy of ethics.

The word "science," which literally means "knowledge," is technically used to mean systematized knowledge of problems dealing with a particular subject. According to this definition, the term "science" could also be applied to metaphysics. In recent centuries, however, the usage of the term has become more limited, and has come to refer to the experimental sciences alone, in opposition to philosophy.

According to the latter definition, philosophy and science each possesses its own distinct subject matter and methodology. That is, philosophy's subject of study consists of the general problems of existence, which are in the main part abstract and are also called, "secondary concepts," and its method is rational and theoretical. Science, on the other hand, is concerned with the study of the accidental properties of particular objects the existence of which is taken for granted; its method is experimental. For example, physics deals with matter and energy and their interactions in the fields of mechanics, acoustics, optics, heat, electricity, magnetism, radiation, atomic structure, and nuclear phenomena; chemistry studies the composition, structure, and properties of substances and the transformations they undergo. Physiology investigates the organic processes and phenomena of living organisms, while psychology discusses mental conditions and characteristics. However, none of these sciences has anything to say about the essential nature of the subject it studies or the fundamental principles underlying its methodology. In other words, neither physics and chemistry express any opinions about the existence of matter, nor physiology and psychology discuss the reality of life and the soul. Nor does any of these sciences examine the principle of causality and its subordinate laws.

What philosophy concerns itself with are general abstract questions such as: cause and effect, permanence and change, the material and the abstract, the contingent and the necessary, etc. And since these issues are not directly connected with sense perception, the problems related to them cannot be settled empirically. The key to their solution must be found in rational investigation and analysis. The way these rational investigations are carried out and the value of their findings constitute the subject matter of an important part of modern philosophy known as "epistemology." It follows then that we cannot expect scientific progress to help us in resolving philosophical disputes, and science to act as a referee in the quarrel between spiritual and materialist philosophies.

Unfortunately, there have been numerous attempts in the history of science and philosophy to invoke scientific laws or theories for help in the solution of philosophical problems, or to tip the scale in favour of a particular metaphysical position. On the contrary, others have sought refuge in the philosophical mode of reasoning and the rational method to help them solve a scientific problem. This, despite the fact that such intrusions are dangerous for both philosophy and science, and keep them from following the paths appropriate to their fields of study and solution of their problems through the use of methods prescribed by the nature of those problems.

As an example of such unjustified intrusion, we can mention the sort of argument some modern physicists have used to "prove" the existence of necessity in the relationship between cause and effect (determinism) by referring to findings in the field of macro-physics, while other physicists have pointed to certain phenomena observed in micro-physics as evidence that no such necessity exists. There is yet a third group that has endeavoured to reconcile the two positions by proposing that determinism is valid in the case of macro-physical phenomena and invalid in the case of micro-physical ones. All this while any philosopher knows that the law of causation is a general philosophical and metaphysical law which is, according to the definitive judgement of reason, fixed and unchanging.

What we must do is to search in nature for cases which would verify the law of causation through experimental investigations. What we definitely shouldn't do is to consider the discovery of a few examples of its applicability as a proof of its validity, or the inability to apply it in few cases as evidence of either its invalidity or lack of generality; since such failure is definitely a result of the inadequacy of our instruments. In fact, it is the self-evident principle of causality that has moved scientists to seek the causes of phenomena and to discover the laws and secrets of nature. To attempt, therefore, to prove this metaphysical principle through reference to physical phenomena and the discoveries of the experimental sciences is like trying to play the flute by blowing through its wrong end.

It should not go unsaid, however, that philosophy and science are related to each other in a number of ways, the most important of which is that philosophy proves the existence of the subject matter and the validity of the fundamental principles of the sciences, while the sciences provide a widening background for philosophical inquiry. In any case, there should be no mixing of either their problems or methods and no expecting of solutions to scientific problems from philosophy or of philosophical problems from science.


Chapter 5

Scientific Philosophy


Admitting the existence of problems that must be investigated on a philosophical plane, Marxism has tried to pretend that these problems can be solved by using the discoveries made by the experimental sciences. The way Marxist writers go about doing this is that they first give an example from nature, and follow it with an example drawn from social or historical phenomena. Their third step is to draw a general conclusion by forcing a connection between these two examples, thereby, in their own imagination, proving the philosophical principle in question. Supposedly, the whole exercise authorizes them to call their philosophy as "scientific" and as based on discoveries made by the experimental sciences. Although this procedure may have some effect on those who are unfamiliar with philosophical problems and scientific methodology and are, therefore, unable to distinguish the weak points and fallacies hidden in this line of reasoning, it has no philosophical value and is considered a form of sophistry and public fraud by those who are knowledgeable in such matters.

We do not deny that there has been a fragmentation in the sciences caused by the extensive specialization of the various fields, and there is, therefore, a need for synthesizing the results of their investigations and bridging the gaps separating the numerous fields of science. Nor do we have any objection to such an endeavour's being called "scientific philosophy," since there is no ethical or legal injunction against coining new terms and names. What we do object to, however, is the abuse of terms and covering up of facts under misleading labels. This, we believe, is reprehensible and must be fought against.

It should be kept in mind that Marxist writers have not created their so-called "scientific philosophy" in order to serve the world of science and scholarship, by making a synthesis of the results of the investigations of the different sciences, and by connecting the endeavours of the diverse fields with one another. Far from such altruistic aims, their real motivation is to provide a justification for their baseless ideology and a philosophical foundation for their immature and inconsistent ideas. Moreover, even though the very notion of relying on scientific findings for finding solutions to metaphysical problems is incorrect and unfruitful, and as it has been stated before, philosophical issues cannot be settled in such a manner; the Marxists are not even loyal to this misguided approach, since they ignore many irrefutable scientific facts, and rely, instead, on weak and unproven theories lacking any scientific value whatsoever. And when the fallacy of these theories is proven, instead of learning a lesson from all the wasted effort and recognizing the futility of their approach, or having recognized it, admitting it, they move on with undaunted courage to grasp at another theory, and through peculiar intellectual acrobatics at which they are so adept, set it forth as further proof of the validity of dialectical materialism.

We shall leave an examination of the fumblings and public deceptions of the Marxists to some future occasion and simply state the fact that the notion of a "scientific philosophy"-in the sense of a philosophy that attempts to solve philosophical problems through the application of the methodology of the experimental sciences with reliance on scientific discoveries alone-is an anomaly unacceptable to any competent thinker. And the adjective "scientific" for philosophy not only does not add anything to its worth, since it ascribes to it a characteristic inappropriate to philosophy, but it simply exposes the bankruptcy of its originators which proves that they were unable to distinguish the boundaries separating science from philosophy and the correct method of tackling philosophical problems. It seems that our Marxist wizards justify this blatant contradiction as an example of "dialectical contradiction," and set it forth as a highly advanced philosophical phenomenon to the credulous devotees of "dialectics."

Another point to be noted here is that just as ascribing the term "scientific" to discussions of philosophical issues is caused either by ignorance, or intentions to deceive the public, to denigrate and condemn them as "unscientific" is also a form of distortion and abuse of the prestige of the word "scientific". And just as being characterized as "scientific" adds nothing to the value of metaphysical investigations, their being labelled as "unscientific" does nothing to bring down their value either. Since, as we mentioned before, being "scientific" means that a subject must lend itself to empirical verification, whereas the quality that purely theoretical problems transcend the realm of sense experience is essential to them, and is not a shortcoming or defect on their part. In other words, just because something is outside the realm of sense experience and cannot be proved through experimental methods, it does not mean that it is worthless or unverifiable. It means, rather, that it should be analysed with the help of the rational method and by the means of the self-evident axioms -of reason. Moreover, as shall be demonstrated later, scientific problems themselves are in need of metaphysical and rational principles.


Chapter 6

Metaphysics


We said earlier that the word "philosophy" has a number of meanings one of which is synonymous with "metaphysics". It should be kept in mind, however, that the word "metaphysics" itself has various meanings-a fact that may give rise to confusion and misunder­standing.

Derived from the Greek term meta physika, [literally, the (works) after the physical (works)], metaphysics is the name given to that part of philosophy which concerns itself with the general principles of existence, and it appears that the ancient philosophers dealt with this subject after the section dealing with the natural sciences (physics) as a matter of didactic convenience. Thus it came to be called "after physics." As we said earlier, when all the other fields of learning separated from philosophy, what was left behind was metaphysics.

Since metaphysics deals with nonmaterial existence, a misunderstanding has arisen that metaphysics deals with supernatural phenomenon, and this misunderstanding has in turn caused spiritual philosophies to be branded as "metaphysical." The fact of the matter is that metaphysical considerations are not limited to theistic philosophies; the materialist schools are in as much need of metaphysics as others. This is the case because anyone who wishes to discuss the general and fundamental principles of existence-principles which do not fall within the exclusive domain of any particular science-must enter the realm of metaphysics, irrespective of the sort of conclusions he might reach. For example, a discussion of the principle of causality is a philosophical and metaphysical one, and although it is considered to be an axiom and used as such by all the experimental sciences, they cannot investigate it through the use of the scientific method and prove its validity. This is so even though their investigations are based upon it, and the formulation of universal scientific laws is possible only because of the law of causation. Even if someone wants to reject the principle of causality or any of its subordinate laws, he would still have to engage in a metaphysical discussion, and as they say, "philosophy can be refuted only through philosophy."

Recently an English philosopher, Robin George Collingwood, has written a treatise on metaphysics in which he has described it as a series of pre-suppositions, which can neither be proved nor disproved. He says that these presuppositions are accepted unconsciously under certain conditions and rejected under a different set of conditions.'

Collingwood's treatise is a jumble of confused ideas, a product, according to one commentator of his works, of his days of illness. It represents a subjective statement or hypothesis devoid of any philosophical value, and cannot be counted as an inquiry into the nature of metaphysics.

Considering what has been said above, it becomes clear that issues of importance in the First Philosophy are also relevant to the physical sciences, and whatever general issues fall outside the framework of science, would be considered as metaphysical. Moreover, even if the doctrine of dialectical materialism should be proven to be true, it would also be a metaphysical principle; since dialectical materialism, as its adherents claim, is not limited to any specific sphere or science, but applies to all natural, social, political, historical, or intellectual phenomena. Therefore, there is no opposition between dialectical materialism and metaphysics. There would, however, be opposition between materialism and metaphysics if the latter is taken to signify the `realm of the supernatural.’ Thus the opposition assumed by the Marxist writers between dialectics and metaphysics is completely groundless and without foundation.

The nature of metaphysical problems is such that they have given rise to differing and even contradictory judgements regarding them. And even though man's nature thirsts for answers to them and, as said before, the human character of man's existence depends on correctly solving some of these problems, yet some European thinkers have judged them as insoluble, while others have considered them useless and even meaningless.

It is obvious that a thorough examination of the aforesaid characteristics of its problems and the numerous opinions expressed on the subject of metaphysics, is outside the scope of this work, requiring far more space. I hope to undertake such an attempt in the future, when I shall examine in detail the misunderstandings that have given rise to such judgements, and explain the issues in simple terms. Here, I shall content myself with mentioning the following points:

A. Since man's immediate and ordinary perceptions are acquired through the medium of the senses, shallow thinking people imagine that there is nothing beyond the perceived world, or, more precisely, beyond the range of our sense perceptions. And if, supposedly, such a thing did exist, it cannot be verified. It was this kind of short sightedness that caused the Children of Israel (Jews) to say to Moses: "We shall never believe in you (as a Divine Messenger) until we see God manifestly (with our own eyes)."(Koran, chapter 2)

The position of those who say that the soul does not exist since we cannot find it through surgery is similar.

In answer to such short sighted views, it would suffice to say that there are many things in this very physical world that cannot be perceived through the senses, such as electricity, electromagnetic waves, and other things, whose existence is considered certain by the concerned sciences. People who deny the existence of anything beyond the range of our senses must either deny all these realities, or admit that knowledge is not limited to that gained through direct sense perception; and that reason can apprehend the existence of the super sensible through the knowledge of its perceptible effects.

B. Exclusive reliance on sense perception (despite its errors and shortcomings) can justify only abstinence from making any judgements regarding the super sensible world. It certainly cannot justify any categorical denial of the super sensible world. It follows, then, that the empiricists have no right to deny the existence of a world lying beyond the range of senses. They must adopt an agnostic attitude towards the subject, allowing the probability of its existence, and act in accordance with such a probability.

C. There is a set of metaphysical principles the validity of which cannot be denied by any reasonable man although they cannot be verified by the senses. The nature of these principles is such that even if someone does try to deny them, he will end up by unconsciously affirming them. For example, the law of contradiction is a metaphysical conception, which cannot be perceived through any of the senses. Not even the individual concepts which constitute it can be apprehended through any of the senses. That is, the idea of contradiction is not `perceived' by the senses. Despite it, however, no reasonable person can deny the validity of this self-evident principle, and even the claim that it is invalid proves its validity.

If someone says that contradiction is possible, can he, at the same time, believe that it is impossible and that it is possible? And if he is told that his claim, although one hundred per cent correct, is also one hundred per cent wrong, would he accept it? Of course not. It is thus proven that the very claim that this principle is invalid proves its validity.

It is clear that all those who have stated the view that contradiction is possible or necessary, either had some other meaning of "contradiction" in mind, or have not understood the meaning of the concept correctly. Otherwise, the impossibility of contradiction-if its meaning is correctly understood-is far too obvious to be questioned by any reasonable person.

The existence of such principles as mentioned above proves that man possesses a faculty of apprehension other than the senses, a faculty that can apprehend certain realities independently. Thus we cannot say that the content of a particular proposition is unknowable or unverifiable just because it is outside the range of perception.

It follows, therefore, that the solution to metaphysical problems must be found through the rational method; that is, through the application of self-evident axioms, solutions to non empirical problems are found. Moreover, if used correctly, this method can lead to results even more definite than those attained in the empirical sciences. In fact, as already pointed out, the certitude of the results attained by the empirical sciences and their generality depend entirely on metaphysical principles.

Every human being, throughout life, perceives things both inside and outside himself. Mostly these perceptions are attained through natural means, and sometimes through artificial devices. In any case, neither an isolated perception nor all of them could be said to constitute a "science," in the sense of a set of general principles. Perception acquires scientific value only when it transcends the limits of the particular and the personal and enters the realm of generality. Moreover, these generalities cannot be in the form of simple concepts, but must take the composite form of postulates consisting of a number of concepts possessing a special relationship amongst them.

For example, the seeing of different colours and shapes, the hearing of various sounds, and other sense-data, give man some knowledge about objects existing in his environment; but this knowledge is not what is meant by the word "science." In other words, the particular bits of information thus obtained do not constitute the science of physics or chemistry, or any other science, even though they are more or less connected with scientific issues. Such postulates, for instance, as "the sum of the angles of a triangle is equal to two right angles," "metals expand when exposed to heat," and "the atoms of one element can be changed into those of another element," etc. are scientific statements. As it can be clearly seen, these notions do not represent particular perceptions of any particular individual, and are not subject to any limitation of time or space. That is, just as they are true of the triangles, metals, and atoms of the past and the present, they are also true of the triangles, metals, and atoms of the future. Nor are these truths in any way affected by spatial considerations. This is the characteristic which distinguishes scientific concepts from particular perceptions.

Now we have to see how man can come to possess the faculty of being able to pass judgement equally on past, present, and future. It is obvious that none of the senses has the ability to look into the past and the future in the manner mentioned above, and the sense perceptions, if they be in accordance with reality, can portray only such phenomena as exist at the time of perception, not those which have long ceased to exist or have not yet come into existence.

There is no doubt that these general postulates, which are based on particular perceptions and are abstracted from them, are transformed through a certain intellectual process into general, definite, and necessary laws. This being so, the next question that presents itself is: how and according to what laws does the human mind extend particular perceptions and turn them into general postulates, and that too in a definitive form, invulnerable to scepticism?

In answer we can say that whenever we perceive two phenomena either together or following one another, we realize that there exists a relationship between them called "the causal relationship," and thus foresee that whenever the cause is present the effect would also be present. For example, whenever heat is produced in metals, their expansion would also follow.

However, without going into meticulous philosophical considerations, it can be said that what we can perceive through the senses is either the simultaneous existence of two phenomena or the fact that one of them follows the other. But by what means do we perceive that the existence of one phenomenon depends on that of another? And, secondly, even if we determine that such a dependence does exist in a particular case, how do we know that such a dependence has existed in the past and will exist in the future, in all locations?

Of course, we admit that all scientists do understand the things just mentioned, and it is on the basis of this understanding that they pursue scientific research and seek for the causes of various phenomena and their interrelationships. We should know, however, that this understanding is not the work of sense organs and the perceptual faculties related to them, -but is the work of another inner faculty called "intellect" which is capable of comprehending fixed realities unconditioned by spatial and temporal limitations. One such unchanging reality is the law of causality and its corollaries to which all scientific laws owe their generality and certainty. Moreover, since these perceptions (rational truths) have not been apprehended through the medium of sense and experience and cannot be verified by any of the experimental sciences, they are therefore metaphysical truths.

In conclusion we can say that not only man's knowledge is not limited to perceptions gained through sense and experience, but the laws of the empirical sciences are themselves in need of non empirical knowledge and metaphysical principles.


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